Humans can “catch” fear from robots, new research has shown. The findings—by a team of psychologists from the University of Amsterdam and the University of British Columbia—shed new light on how emotions can spread through touch, with implications for human relationships, mental health, and future technologies such as virtual reality and wearable devices. The research is published in the journal Emotion.
When people are frightened, they often grab a loved one’s hand, hug a pet, or cling to someone nearby. Touch is usually comforting—but not always. “If the person you’re holding is scared, their body might give you signals that increase your own fear,” says lead researcher Dr. Zachary Witkower of the UvA. “Our work shows that one of those signals is breathing.”
Breathing is closely tied to emotion: calm breathing suggests relaxation, while rapid breathing can signal fear or panic. The researchers wanted to know if people could sense these breathing changes through physical contact—and whether that would affect their own body’s response to fear.
Testing fear with a ‘breathing’ robot
To find out, the team designed a furry, plush robot with a hidden motorized ribcage that could mimic human breathing. More than 100 student volunteers hugged the robot while watching a scary movie clip.
Depending on the group, the robot either: did not “breathe” at all; breathed steadily at a calm pace, or breathed rapidly, simulating hyperventilation. Meanwhile, the researchers tracked the volunteers’ heart rates to measure physiological arousal.
Fear is contagious—even from a machine
The results were striking. Participants holding the robot with rapid breathing showed the strongest increases in heart rate—indicating heightened fear—compared to those holding the calm-breathing or still robots.
Importantly, the participants also judged the fast-breathing robot as appearing “afraid,” suggesting they interpreted the robot’s body signals the same way they would interpret a human or animal’s.
Applications in technology and therapy
The study has broad implications. For human-robot interaction, it suggests that machines simulating breathing could be used to influence users’ emotions—just as video game controllers use vibration to intensify excitement. In therapeutic contexts, calming robots or wearable devices might help people regulate stress or anxiety by guiding their physiological responses.
On the flip side, the findings also reveal a cautionary note: clinging to someone (or something) that is panicking may make you panic too. “People often cling to others when they’re scared, but if the other person is also afraid and hyperventilating, that touch can backfire by amplifying your own physiological response,” Witkower says.
A window into emotional contagion
The researchers emphasize that their study was conducted with university students in a controlled lab setting. Future work will explore whether similar effects occur in children, older adults, or people with anxiety disorders. The team also hopes to measure breathing directly, alongside heart rate, to better understand the biological mechanisms at play.
Overall, the findings highlight how subtle bodily signals—like breathing—can spread emotions without words. “We often think of emotions as spreading through facial expressions or tone of voice,” Witkower says. “But our study shows that something as basic as the rhythm of another’s breathing, even when simulated by a robot, can affect how our own bodies respond to fear.”
More information:
Zachary Witkower et al, Human psychophysiology is influenced by physical touch with a “breathing” robot, Emotion (2025). DOI: 10.1037/emo0001601
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